- Terms used to describe properties of materials - Sustainability design features of buildings - Aims of energy efficiency - Telection of building materials - Topographic maps - Primary layers of the earth - Basic rock types - Soiles of coal - Soil compaction sizes - Problematic soil types and their foundation

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1. **Terms Used to Describe Properties of Materials**  
   - **Density:** Defined as mass per unit volume, often expressed as  
     $$
     \rho = \frac{m}{V}
     $$
     where $$ m $$ is mass and $$ V $$ is volume.  
   - **Strength:** Measures the ability of a material to withstand an applied load without failure. For example, compressive strength is given by  
     $$
     \sigma_c = \frac{F}{A}
     $$
     where $$ F $$ is the force and $$ A $$ is the cross-sectional area.  
   - **Elastic Modulus:** Indicates stiffness, defined by the ratio of stress to strain in the elastic region, i.e.,  
     $$
     E = \frac{\sigma}{\epsilon}
     $$
     where $$ \sigma $$ is stress and $$ \epsilon $$ is strain.  
   - **Hardness, Toughness, and Ductility:** Other key properties commonly described in material science.

2. **Sustainability Design Features of Buildings**  
   - **Energy Efficiency:** Incorporates passive solar design, insulation, and high-performance windows to reduce energy consumption.  
   - **Water Efficiency:** Uses fixtures and landscaping techniques (e.g., rainwater harvesting) to minimize water use.  
   - **Material Selection:** Chooses environmentally friendly, recyclable, or low embodied energy materials.  
   - **Indoor Environmental Quality:** Emphasizes good ventilation, non-toxic building materials, and adequate daylighting.  
   - **Site Planning:** Optimizes building orientation and design to reduce environmental impact and enhance resilience.

3. **Aims of Energy Efficiency**  
   - **Reduction of Energy Consumption:** Minimizing the energy required for heating, cooling, lighting, and operations.  
   - **Lowering Greenhouse Gas Emissions:** Reducing fossil fuel usage helps mitigate environmental impacts.  
   - **Cost Savings:** Less energy consumption translates into lower utility bills.  
   - **Improved Comfort and Operational Performance:** Efficient systems usually provide more stable indoor conditions.

4. **Selection of Building Materials**  
   - **Durability and Maintenance:** Materials are chosen based on their lifespan and required upkeep.  
   - **Thermal Mass:** Heavy materials that store heat (such as concrete) help regulate temperature.  
   - **Sustainability:** Preference is given to materials with recycled content, low toxicity, and minimal environmental footprint.  
   - **Local Availability:** Sourcing materials locally reduces transportation energy and supports local economies.

5. **Topographic Maps**  
   - **Definition:** These maps represent the 3D features of the terrain on a 2D medium.  
   - **Contour Lines:** Curves that connect points of equal elevation, used to visualize relief and slopes.  
   - **Scale and Details:** Provide information on elevation changes, landforms, and man-made features, aiding in planning and design.

6. **Primary Layers of the Earth**  
   - **Crust:** The outermost layer where we live, typically 5–70 km thick.  
   - **Mantle:** A thick layer beneath the crust (approximately 2,900 km thick) composed mostly of silicate rocks.  
   - **Core:** Divided into the liquid outer core and the solid inner core, primarily composed of iron and nickel.  
     
     The classical structure is summarized as:  
     $$
     \text{Crust} \rightarrow \text{Mantle} \rightarrow \text{Core (outer and inner)}
     $$

7. **Basic Rock Types**  
   - **Igneous Rocks:** Formed through the cooling and solidification of magma or lava (e.g., granite, basalt).  
   - **Sedimentary Rocks:** Created by the accumulation and lithification of sediment (e.g., sandstone, limestone).  
   - **Metamorphic Rocks:** Produced by the transformation of existing rock types under pressure and temperature (e.g., schist, gneiss).

8. **Types (Ranks) of Coal**  
   - **Anthracite:** The hardest and highest grade, with high carbon content and minimal impurities.  
   - **Bituminous:** Common grade used for electricity generation and steel production.  
   - **Sub-bituminous:** Lower carbon content than bituminous, used in power generation.  
   - **Lignite:** The lowest rank with high moisture content and lower energy density.

9. **Soil Compaction and Grain Sizes**  
   - **Compaction:** The process of increasing soil density by reducing air voids. It is critical for providing a stable foundation.  
   - **Grain Size Distribution:** Soils are classified by grain sizes such as:
     - **Gravel:** Particles larger than $$2$$ mm.
     - **Sand:** Particles between $$0.0625$$ mm and $$2$$ mm.
     - **Silt:** Particles between $$0.002$$ mm and $$0.0625$$ mm.
     - **Clay:** Particles less than $$0.002$$ mm.
   - **Standard Compaction Tests:** Use formulas such as the Proctor test to determine maximum dry density and optimum moisture content.

10. **Problematic Soil Types and Their Foundations**  
    - **Expansive or Swelling Soils:** These soils change volume with moisture variations, potentially damaging foundations. Mitigation includes using deep foundations or moisture barriers.  
    - **Collapsible Soils:** Loose or poorly compacted soils that may compress under load; stabilization techniques or specialized foundation designs (e.g., pier and beam foundations) are often necessary.  
    - **Organic Soils:** High organic content leads to weak and compressible soils. Removal or replacement with engineered fill may be required prior to construction.  
    - **Peat Soils:** Highly compressible and high in water content; foundations may need to be floated or built on piles.

1. **Properties of Materials** - **Density:** Mass per unit volume. - **Strength:** Ability to withstand applied loads. - **Elastic Modulus:** Stiffness, defined by stress to strain ratio. - **Hardness, Toughness, Ductility:** Additional material properties. 2. **Sustainability in Building Design** - **Energy Efficiency:** Passive solar design, insulation, high-performance windows. - **Water Efficiency:** Rainwater harvesting, efficient fixtures. - **Material Selection:** Environmentally friendly, recyclable materials. - **Indoor Quality:** Good ventilation, non-toxic materials, daylighting. - **Site Planning:** Optimized orientation and design for minimal environmental impact. 3. **Energy Efficiency Goals** - **Reduce Energy Use:** Lower energy consumption for heating, cooling, etc. - **Lower Emissions:** Decrease greenhouse gas emissions by reducing fossil fuel use. - **Cost Savings:** Lower utility bills through efficient systems. - **Comfort:** Stable indoor conditions with efficient systems. 4. **Building Material Selection** - **Durability:** Long-lasting materials with minimal maintenance. - **Thermal Mass:** Materials that store heat to regulate temperature. - **Sustainability:** Environmentally friendly, recycled, and low-impact materials. - **Local Availability:** Sourcing materials locally to reduce transportation energy. 5. **Topographic Maps** - **Definition:** 3D terrain representation on a 2D map. - **Contour Lines:** Lines connecting points of equal elevation. - **Scale and Details:** Show elevation changes, landforms, and man-made features. 6. **Earth's Layers** - **Crust:** Outermost layer (5–70 km thick). - **Mantle:** Thick layer beneath the crust (2,900 km thick). - **Core:** Outer and inner layers composed of iron and nickel. 7. **Basic Rock Types** - **Igneous:** Formed from cooled magma or lava (e.g., granite, basalt). - **Sedimentary:** Created by accumulated and lithified sediment (e.g., sandstone, limestone). - **Metamorphic:** Transformed by heat and pressure (e.g., schist, gneiss). 8. **Types of Coal** - **Anthracite:** Hard, high carbon content. - **Bituminous:** Common for electricity and steel production. - **Sub-bituminous:** Lower carbon content, used in power generation. - **Lignite:** Lowest rank, high moisture content. 9. **Soil Compaction and Grain Sizes** - **Compaction:** Increasing soil density to provide stable foundations. - **Grain Sizes:** - **Gravel:** >2 mm. - **Sand:** 0.0625 mm – 2 mm. - **Silt:** 0.002 mm – 0.0625 mm. - **Clay:** <0.002 mm. - **Compaction Tests:** Determine maximum dry density and optimum moisture content. 10. **Problematic Soil Types and Foundations** - **Expansive Soils:** Change volume with moisture, damaging foundations; mitigation with deep foundations or moisture barriers. - **Collapsible Soils:** Loose, compressible; require specialized foundations like pier and beam. - **Organic Soils:** Weak and compressible; may need removal or engineered fill. - **Peat Soils:** Highly compressible and wet; foundations may need to be floated or built on piles.

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