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5 Explain the role that the outer electrons in elements play in how they react with each other. Be sure to explain both ionic and covalent bonds with
how they interact and why they react that way.
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\textbf{Step 1: Role of Outer (Valence) Electrons}
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Outer electrons, or valence electrons, are the electrons in the highest energy level of an atom. They are the ones involved in chemical reactions because they are the most loosely held and can easily be lost, shared, or gained in order to achieve a stable electron configuration (often resembling the electron configuration of a noble gas).

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\textbf{Step 2: Ionic Bonds}
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In an ionic bond, one atom loses one or more valence electrons and becomes a positively charged ion ($$ \text{cation} $$), while another atom gains those electrons to become a negatively charged ion ($$ \text{anion} $$). The electrostatic attraction between the oppositely charged ions holds them together.

For example, consider sodium ($$ \text{Na} $$) and chlorine ($$ \text{Cl} $$):
- Sodium has one valence electron. It tends to lose that electron to achieve a stable electron configuration.
- Chlorine has seven valence electrons. It tends to gain one electron to complete its octet.

The transfer of the electron is represented as:
$$
\text{Na} \rightarrow \text{Na}^+ + e^-
$$
$$
\text{Cl} + e^- \rightarrow \text{Cl}^-
$$

The attraction between $$ \text{Na}^+ $$ and $$ \text{Cl}^- $$ forms the ionic bond in sodium chloride ($$ \text{NaCl} $$).

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\textbf{Step 3: Covalent Bonds}
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In a covalent bond, two atoms share one or more pairs of electrons in order to each achieve a full outer electron shell. The shared electrons count towards the octet of both atoms.

For example, consider the hydrogen molecule ($$ \text{H}_2 $$):
- Each hydrogen atom has one valence electron.
- By sharing their electrons, both atoms achieve a stable electron configuration, similar to having two electrons in their only shell.

This sharing is represented as:
$$
\text{H} + \text{H} \rightarrow \text{H} \!-\! \text{H}
$$

Covalent bonds can be either nonpolar or polar:
- $$\textbf{Nonpolar covalent bonds}$$: Electrons are shared equally between atoms because the atoms have similar electronegativities.
- $$\textbf{Polar covalent bonds}$$: Electrons are shared unequally because one atom has a higher electronegativity, resulting in partial charges within the molecule.

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\textbf{Conclusion}
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The outer electrons determine how atoms interact:
- For ionic bonds, the transfer of electrons from one atom to another creates charged ions that attract each other.
- For covalent bonds, the sharing of electrons allows atoms to achieve stable electron configurations without forming ions.

In both cases, the nature of the valence electrons drives the reactivity and bond formation between different elements.
Outer electrons, or valence electrons, are crucial in how elements react with each other. They can either be transferred or shared to achieve a stable electron configuration. - **Ionic Bonds**: One atom loses electrons to become a positive ion, and another gains electrons to become a negative ion. The electrostatic attraction between these oppositely charged ions forms the bond. For example, sodium (Na) loses an electron to become Na⁺, and chlorine (Cl) gains an electron to become Cl⁻, forming NaCl. - **Covalent Bonds**: Atoms share electrons to complete their outer shells. This sharing can be equal (nonpolar) or unequal (polar), depending on the electronegativity difference between the atoms. For instance, two hydrogen atoms share electrons to form H₂. In summary, the behavior of outer electrons determines whether elements form ionic or covalent bonds, influencing how they react and combine with other elements.

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